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Career Paths

The skills and talents cultivated in PhD training, and the traits inherent to those who navigate training successfully, provide a strong and competitive foundation for any number of careers. Chief among such careers, of course, are those relating to scientific research, in the settings of academia, industry, and government. But others are no less important, nor less well served by PhD training.

We list below career paths for which a PhD in the biomedical sciences is advantageous. We provide for each path a description of the profession, advantages of an advanced degree, key competencies, on-campus student organizations, first steps, alumni videos, and resources.

Description: Consultants help companies or other clients solve their business problems by providing support around a range of strategic and/or operational issues. Consultants are expected to be experts on their assigned projects or cases and are expected to know how to ask good questions, collect data, and compile information into meaningful advice. Corporations, governments, and nonprofit institutions all use consultants. Some tasks performed by consultants include conducting detailed industry analyses or devising key strategic initiatives for their clients. A graduate of a biomedical program, if pursuing a career in consulting, generally does so as an employee of a general management consulting firm, as an employee of a life sciences-specific boutique firm, or as a government contractor. Entry-level consultants, including PhD graduates, tend to be hired by larger firms initially. This is likely due to the fact that large firms have the most resources available for training new hires. It is not uncommon for consultants to later move to smaller firms. Often cited attractions are highly motivated colleagues, variety of projects, turnaround on results, and value of the work from a business perspective. The expanding knowledge base is perceived to be valuable as well with respect to career differentiation. Consulting can involve a tremendous amount of traveling, which can be enjoyable or not depending on circumstances.

Advantages of an advanced degree: An advanced degree (PhD or MD) is an advantageous route for any position in a consulting firm. What’s key, however, is how well one can think on their feet when given a project and the analytical approach brought to the table to solve the problem. It is extraordinarily important to be effective in communicating the framework and solution to your clients. Critical thinking and communication are all the skills one obtained during graduate training.  A postdoctoral experience is not necessarily advantageous.

Key competencies: Essential skills include: ability to work effectively in a team and communicate clearly with professionals of different backgrounds. Good consultants also must have excellent analytical and problem solving skills, time management skills; and leadership skills.

On-campus student organizations: Penn Biotech Group (PBG) Health Care Consulting; Penn Graduate Consulting Club (PGCC)

First steps: Even though a consulting career does not require additional training prior to landing a job, there are things one can do to boost the chance of gaining the first position. These include seeking out consulting internship opportunities, getting involved in activities that demonstrate leadership and organization skills, attending information session, and networking with professionals in this field to learn more about the jobs.

Alumni network: BGS alumni are employed by a variety of consulting companies. Examples include: McKinsey & Company, Boston Consulting Group, and Schireson Associates.

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Description: Commercialization is the process of introducing a new product or method of production into commerce. An entrepreneur is an individual who initiates or assumes control of this venture, usually assuming a major share of the risks and rewards and an element of risk. Scientific endeavor is, at its heart, the process of discovery, therefore there are many opportunities for translating one’s work, or another’s, into products or services with commercial value. Commercialization is closely allied with technology transfer, but within the context of entrepreneurship as a career involves as well a considerable focus on management itself, usually at the level of a start-up company. One of the biggest initial challenges for an aspiring entrepreneur is to secure funding, most often accomplished through small business grants, individual investors, or venture capital firms. An entrepreneur assumes as well control of human and material resources.

Advantages of an advanced degree: Most entrepreneurs leading scientific start-ups relating to health concerns have an advanced degree in biomedical science. The advantage is having the capacity to understand, manage, and communicate to scientists and businessmen alike what is often a cutting-edge scientific product or service that not infrequently continues to evolve. Moreover, it is in the pursuit of an advanced degree, or activities enabled by such a degree, such as academic research, that translational opportunities are realized. Experience in technology transfer and intellectual property can also prepare one to become a better entrepreneur.

Key competencies: The most important quality of an entrepreneur is the ability to perceive new business opportunities and unmet market needs. Other key traits are strong leadership skills, pro-risk-taking attitude, and innovation. A capacity and willingness to develop, organize and manage a business venture is key to success, and excellent communication and marketing skills are also important.

On-campus student organizations: The Penn Biotech Group and the Penn Graduate Consulting Club both share interests commercialization and entrepreneurship.

First steps: Any student interested in commercialization/entrepreneurship would do well to check out opportunities provided by Penn Center for Innovation. These currently include the PCI Fellows Program and Startup Accelerator Program. Students might also consider postdoc opportunities in the ever-increasing number of scientific start-ups in Philadelphia, for example within the Science Center.

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Description: A financial analyst is someone who gathers and analyzes financial information in order to provide advice to clients regarding financial decisions. Scientists who become financial analysts divide into two categories: those who utilize high-level mathematical and programming skills to become ‘quantitative’ analysts, and those who utilize knowledge of science-based industries to provide tailored information. Some individuals trained in the biomedical sciences have the mathematical and/or data skills of sufficient magnitude to gain employment in the former, but the latter is the norm. Analysts with scientific training are able to understand and communicate the complexity of biotechs, pharmaceuticals, and related enterprises. The major components of the job are company- and industry-specific research, marketing stocks to investors, and to some extent corporate financing. The ability to communicate with diverse audiences, for example eliciting information from management teams, finding those who can corroborate this information, and being able to explain one’s conclusions to sales teams and investors, is essential. From all accounts of those in this profession, success in the career requires long hours and large amounts of energy to keep on top of the rapid advances and keen competition.

Advantages of an advanced degree: There are many allusions by those in the field to the power bestowed by having a PhD following one’s name, but the advantages of course run far more deeply. Chief among them is the ability to understand the science and perspectives of those producing that science in considerable if not exhaustive detail. A scientist who becomes an analyst will come to speak two languages, as one writer put it (see the article by Swarup below): one is the language of science, and the second is the language of finance. Another widely acknowledged advantage is the quantitative skill set that comes with earning a PhD.

Key competencies: There are many skills required in this line of business. Quantitative skills, including those that extend to financial fundamentals, are at the top of the list. For any biomedical PhD who wants to become a financial analyst, therefore, additional training is in the mix. Highly sophisticated written and verbal skills are paramount, since one’s reasoning must be explained frequently in different ways, often with the intent of persuasion.

On-campus student organizations: Wharton has a number of relevant undergraduate and MBA groups, for example the Investment and Trading Group, Private Equity/Venture Capital Association, Undergraduate Finance Club, Investment Management Club, and Impact Investing Partners.

First steps: Getting involved in business networks and enterprise initiatives here at Penn, for example through Wharton, can lead to relevant connections, as can contacting alumni who have taken this route. One can acquire an understanding of company and share fundamentals through textbooks and/or classes. Reading finance-oriented periodicals will provide a sense of the current picture of general or specific industries.

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Description: Administrative positions within the government apart from policy and regulation (which are treated separately) – at least those in which an advanced degree in the biomedical sciences can prove advantageous – devolve primarily to those in grants review and management. Positions of this nature are relatively numerous, of course, in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and National Science Foundation (NSF), but they also exist in the Center for Disease Control, Department of Agriculture, Department of Energy, Department of Defense, Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Food & Drug Administration, Health and Human Services, National Aeronautics & Space Administration, and Public Health Service.

The perspective for NIH with regard to grants management can be generalized reasonably to other institutes, although distinctions certainly exist. The following description was compiled from NIH websites and slide presentations.

The NIH describes grant officers, formally a Health Science Administrators (HSAs), as individuals responsible for the initial administrative, scientific, and technical review of NIH research grant applications pertaining to scientific and technical fields. The responsibilities of the HSA include, but are not limited to: organizing and managing peer-review groups to evaluate research proposals on the basis of their scientific merit; managing extramural research and research training programs, and identifying research areas warranting either increased or decreased funding emphasis; developing Requests for Applications (RFAs) and Requests for Proposals (RFPs) designed to elicit research grant and contract proposals from the scientific community; providing technical assistance to applicants and grantees; serving as project officer on research contracts and program administrator/director on research grants; conducting site visits to applicant and grantee institutions to determine the adequacy of research and training facilities; and serving as spokesperson for agency programs in dealing with the scientific community, the Congress, and other Federal agencies.

Many HSAs serve as Scientific Review Administrators (SRAs, or sometimes SROs (Scientific Review Officers)) to Initial Review Groups (IRGs). IRGs evaluate the scientific merit of grant applications and contract proposals. SRA’s, through the use of consultants, determine whether adequate facilities and qualified investigators are available to carry out the program for which financial support is sought. They recommend guidelines and implement criteria for establishment of scientific merit priorities for financial support of research, its resources and facilities, and research for training. SRA’s are responsible for preparation of comprehensive reports of the evaluations of all applications reviewed.

Some HSAs are Program Officials (POs). POs are responsible for the programmatic, scientific, and/or technical aspects of assigned applications and grants. They serve as a source of scientific and medical knowledge, manage research portfolios, make recommendations regarding national and international policy formulation, scientific directions, and funding, and coordinate a variety of program activities with federal and private institutions.

Please note that not all administrative positions within governmental agencies in which PhD or MD degrees can prove advantageous devolve to grants management. Executive positions also exist. Individuals who hold these positions have either ‘moved up’ internally or have attained a high degree of stature elsewhere.

Advantages of advanced degree: An advanced degree (PhD or MD) in the biomedical or behavioral science (or equivalent training and experience) is in fact a requirement, as is a record of independent research accomplishments. What constitutes “independent” is not altogether clear. The pendulum appears to swing a bit on this – at one point NIH (CSR, in particular) had an internship program from which it recruited, and at another NIH appeared to prefer older, more established investigators. NIH is nonetheless most interested is one’s depth of research accomplishments and networking with the field. As an aside, NIH requires US citizenship. It’s not clear the extent to which other agencies require citizenship, or how being a contractor might fit into that picture.

Key competencies: Considerable experience in scientific thought and procedure, with perhaps a special emphasis on methodology, is absolutely required, together with a sense of what’s going on generally in biomedical research. Excellent communication and networking skills are a must.

First steps: The expectations of NIH (and by extension other governmental agencies) regarding scientific development were discussed above: having developed a record of independent research and being especially proactive in following and otherwise networking with other investigators. With regard to the latter, scientific societies are always seeking the membership of pre- and postdoctoral students –  participation at national meetings sponsored by these societies and a willingness to pitch in administratively provide immense benefits. There is also some intimation from NIH that that experience in review work is helpful. Experience of this nature can begin to take form for predoctoral students with the review of manuscripts received by one’s mentor, of course with the agreement of the managing editor. In later stages of a scientific career, experience can be achieved through review of manuscripts and also, of course, grant applications. With regard to the latter, getting on an SRA’s (or equivalent’s) radar early can be quite useful. Sometimes this happens naturally because one’s grant has been successfully reviewed in that SRA’s study section. But there are other ways as well, for example having a colleague who is a member of a relevant study section putting in a good word for you. Additionally, take every opportunity to talk with POs familiar with your work, which is made easier if you are supported by an individual fellowship, through a training grant, or, in later stages, research grants. Lastly, keep an eye on the employment sites of the NIH and the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which provide various kinds of background and openings information (see ‘Additional Resources’ below for links.)

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Description: Medical science liaisons (MSLs) are individuals with advanced scientific training and academic credentials who work for pharmaceuticals, biotechs, medical device companies, CROs, and other health-care industries as scientific peers and resources within the medical community. MLSs work throughout a product’s lifecycle, i.e. that of a drug or device, to ensure the product is used effectively. The primary purpose of the MSL role is to establish and maintain peer-peer relationships with leading physicians, referred to as Key Opinion Leaders, at major academic institutions and clinics. MSLs work closely with researchers, medical product teams, and medical professionals. An MSL is not part of the sales force for a company, but rather employed usually through a division analogous to medical affairs. A key attraction of being an MSL as a career is the requirement to integrate basic and clinical research at a very high level and in a way that can be communicated in any setting of professionals. Other features include a high level of independence and travel.

Advantages of an advanced degree: A PhD or MD has become a requisite for entry into this profession, owing to the sophistication and scope of the relevant basic and clinical disciplines and the development of peer-peer relationships.

Key competencies: A high degree of scientific and medical acumen is required, especially at the level of knitting basic research with clinical studies, having complete facility with a product’s development and testing, and understanding relevant clinical issues completely. The ability to communicate clearly and precisely to diverse audiences, and to adjust the message depending on time and reading of the audience, is also essential. An ability to maintain extensive networks and to manage time effectively is required as well. Many cite the advantages of an outgoing, optimistic personality, which speaks to the high degree of ‘people’ skills required.

On-campus student organizations: There are no student organizations that especially fit this career, but several can be helpful, the Penn Graduate Consulting Club in particular.

First steps: Understanding translational concepts in medicine and clinical trials, and specifically determining one’s affinity for them, is important. Toward this end, exploring some of the programs offered through the Clinical and Translational Science Award administered through the Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics can be an excellent first step.  Also of high relevance are various aspects of the Graduate Training in Medical Science program.

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Description: Medical writing, referred to sometimes as medical communication, deals with the development of materials that communicate information from medical and healthcare research to diverse audiences. The materials are varied. They can include research papers and reviews, abstracts, posters, slide presentations, content for websites, new articles, regulatory documents, and training materials. They are generally produced within, or commissioned by, pharmaceutical and medical device companies. Target audiences include regulatory agencies, physicians, and the general public. Medical writing can involve as well data analysis, liaison activities, education, protocol development, review, and project management. Indeed, medical writers often represent a key point of integration in developing projects or among diverse constituencies. Medical writers work mostly in companies conducting research or product development, but a large number work in science writing-related contract or outsourcing companies, and as freelancers, as well.

Advantage of advanced degree: About two-thirds of all medical writers have an advanced degree. A degree in the biomedical sciences provides familiarity both with basic and clinical concepts, and the research and terminology intrinsic to these concepts. It provides as well assurances of basic competencies in statistics, literature searching, and communication. Most writers agree that having papers used in fulfillment of dissertation research provides credibility. Whether having postdoctoral research in addition to an advanced degree is helpful is not always certain, but large (choosier) companies can view this to be attractive. It is not uncommon in large pharmaceuticals, in fact, to have in-house scientists well beyond postdoctoral research to make a lateral move into medical writing.

Key competencies: The abilities to conceptualize and write with clarity are absolute keys. Conceptualization is the process of integrating and prioritizing sometimes large amounts of technical information into parcels that can be easily and accurately understood by the target audience. It quite often involves understanding and conveying context, i.e. seeing the information as it relates to the big picture. Clarity in writing speaks for itself, but those interested in the profession should know that it’s one of the first things to be evaluated in an interview situation (see BGS 30th Anniversary: Science Writing). Relevant competencies can also include specialized types of knowledge, for example a familiarity with specific areas of medicine, therapy, drug development, and safety testing. Statistics is important – the basics are one thing, but every medical writer needs to understand the increasingly sophisticated forms of statistical analysis that are now used. As scientific information continues to expand almost exponentially, the medical writer must also be able to search a variety of databases efficiently. Familiarity with elements of experimental design and interpretation can help immensely, and is essential if responsibilities include writing manuscripts for submission to scientific journals.

First steps: Those interested in medical writing are strongly encouraged to review the resources provided by the American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) and the National Association of Science Writers (NASW). AMWA provides a number of online courses and several certifications. Massive online open course offerings are just now emerging at the level of scientific writing, and some may differentiate into medical writing. Some institutions provide certifications and/or degrees in medical writing.

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Description: The university setting is quite attractive from a variety of perspectives. Foremost among these are the diversity and degree of intellectual activity, the commitment to educating talented individuals, the vibrant cultural activities, and the amenities that include access to courses and recreational resources. Research and teaching are the mainstay of university life, of course, but there exist other opportunities accessible to those with PhDs in the biomedical sciences. These opportunities are varied and consequently difficult to categorize. Administrative positions listed with HigherEdJobs provide a sense of what’s possible: academic advising, managing continuing education or postgrad educational programs, career counseling, development and fundraising, programs related to diversity and inclusion, and handling initiatives related to long-distance education. A glance around the University itself provides additional ideas, for example through the centers and infrastructure for research that exist: the Center for Excellence in Teaching, Learning and Innovation and the Penn Center for Innovation, for example, both represent ventures that have employed PhDs in biomedical science. There’s also a middle ground to consider, one that involves lab skills and some degree of research that nonetheless falls under the category of nonacademic jobs. Careers of this nature include staffing or directing clinical laboratories or research laboratories that serve as core facilities.

Advantage of an advanced degree: How a PhD in the biomedical sciences provides an advantage is case-specific. The value of the PhD, with some exceptions, will not be so much about scientific capabilities as the perspective it provides. The exceptions relate to positions within certain centers, clinical and research core laboratories, and some aspects of research infrastructure. The PhD, too, is a testament to a variety of non-bench skills and traits that are attractive within academia. Other factors relevant to one’s goals and perhaps other skills will obviously come into play.

Key competencies: Key competencies will vary according to the type of position.

On-campus student organizations: The relevance of student organizations will depend on the position sought.

First steps: Informational interviews are quite helpful, of course, but given the often unique requirements for university nonacademic professions externships and/or internships are invaluable.

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Description: Nonprofit organizations, as entities that work through humanitarian, charitable, and educational means to improve the human condition, afford a particularly attractive path for scientists with deep commitments to the goals of the organizations that exist within this sector. Scientific nonprofit organizations include professional associations, advocacy groups, and private foundations. There exist many venues for conducting research itself, as represented by the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Cold Spring Harbor Research Laboratory, The Scripps Institute, The Broad Institute, etc., but as well by a vast array of smaller non-profits that conduct highly targeted research. Nonprofits such as the National Science Foundation, American Cancer Association, American Heart Association, American Diabetes Association, etc., provide support for policy, research, and education. Still other organizations are more intimately connected to the well-being of specific communities and ethnic groups. Professional associations develop and shape policy, and many are responsible as well for scientific publications. Thus, almost every type of path that a graduate of a biomedical program might pursue – research, education, grants management, policy, public health, writing, and publication – has its place in the nonprofit sector. The chief reward for work in a nonprofit, at least as commonly cited, is the ability to effect social change that aligns with one’s passion. Other rewards, especially in the smaller nonprofits, are the opportunities to develop wide-ranging skill sets and to become more easily involved in setting goals and strategies. Disincentives can include salary (although there is apparently a wide range), burnout, and sometimes circuitous routes of advancement owing to relatively stable hierarchical structures.

Advantage of advanced degree: The advantages of a PhD degree relate to the skills it connotes and a knowledge base appropriate to the goals of the nonprofit. A PhD will be a driving force in credibility and advancement.

Key competencies: Any and all skills developed through biomedical training can be required in the nonprofit sector. Detailed discussions of skills relevant to scientific writing, policy, communication, etc., can be found elsewhere in this website.

First steps: The most often cited factor that relates to satisfaction and success in the nonprofit sector is the degree of commitment, i.e. passion, the individual has for a cause represented within the sector. With the recognition of such a commitment, the first step is to contact individuals within relevant organizations for informational interviews.

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Description: The basic activities of patent law include ‘prosecution’, relating to the examination process before the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO); ‘litigation’, or the protection in court of the rights of inventors as they relate to patents; and ‘licensing’, which relates to transfers of patent rights. These activities are carried out, to varying extents, by technical specialists, patent agents, and patent attorneys.

The most common point of entry for those with PhD or MD degrees is at the level of a patent agent. A patent agent is someone who has obtained a license to practice before the USPTO by passing the patent bar. Patent agents are most commonly involved in prosecution and licensing. Patent agents are not attorneys so are prohibited from practicing law beyond those activities that are incident to the preparation and prosecution of patent applications. The difference between a patent agent and a patent attorney is that the latter, in addition to having passed the patent bar, possesses a law degree and has passed a state bar exam. Patent attorneys are involved in every aspect of patent law, with a prominent involvement in contracts, performing due diligence, and litigation. Patent agents and patent attorneys are employed by universities, law firms, and R&D-based companies. Finally, the USPTO employs patent examiners, who are hired for their technical expertise and, given training, are responsible for reviews of patentability.

Advantage of Advanced Degree: Patent law as it relates to universities, biotechnology, and the pharmaceutical industry, requires a very high degree of sophistication in specialized components of the life sciences. Many employers require a PhD degree for employment as technical specialists or patent agents. If not required, the PhD degree nonetheless provides an advantage of intellectual wherewithal attractive to employers and clients. A PhD degree is not required of a patent attorney. Those who have a PhD, however, find it provides them a singular edge.

Key Competencies: Competencies intrinsic to scientific pursuit are of course essential. Much is made of specialized technical knowledge, but a demonstrated versatility among different scientific disciplines provides a considerable advantage. Highly cited, as well, are competencies relating to excellence in written and verbal communication and to teamwork.

First Steps: The most practical step beyond evaluation of printed and web-based resources is, as almost always, contacting alumni who work in the field. There are no on-campus student organizations devoted specifically to patent law, however Penn’s tech transfer may be used to some purpose, at the very least to direct you to patent law firms with whom it works. As noted above, patent agency is generally the point of access for those holding PhD degrees. It is not uncommon for companies or law firms to hire those with PhDs into positions as technical specialists in advance of, or preparation for, the patent bar exam. Careful consideration should be given the decision to enroll in law school as a means of becoming a patent attorney given the time and expense.

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Description:  Science policy has been described operationally as “the perfect marriage between communications, science, and serving society.” It is a largely advisory profession, which is to say that most individuals in the profession are policy advisors. Specifically, they communicate to leaders within often powerful interest groups the information required by to make informed decisions. Such interest groups include government (US, state, and sometimes local), industry, scientific societies, universities, and nonprofits. Communication often takes the form of briefs, in which usually complicated sets of ideas and data must be reduced without oversimplification to their essential elements. But communication can take many other forms as well, including lengthy policy treatises, talks, and testimony. In this regard, advisors must be able to tailor their message to diverse audiences, including those holding sometimes conflicting views. Scientific advisors are commonly responsible as well for organizing meetings among many different groups in order to procure or share information. One item that comes across in any discussion of a scientific advisor’s skill-set, especially in governmental agencies, is the ability to handle an extraordinary breadth of information that one must understand.

Approximately 25% of scientific advisors are employed by the US government. Some work within the executive branch, within the Office of Science and Technology Policy primarily, but also the President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology and the National Science and Technology Council, to provide advice directly to the President. Others work within agencies represented in the executive branch at the level of the cabinet. Of primary interest to those with MD or biomedical PhD degrees is the Department of Health and Human Services, a component of which is the Public Health Service, which comprises the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, and the National Institutes of Health, all of which employ scientific advisors.

Advantages of an advanced degree: An advanced degree (PhD or MD) is the much preferred route for any position in policy relating to the biomedical sciences – the commonly held view is that no one can really understand the way science works but for those raised within the sciences. A postdoctoral experience can prove advantageous in this regard but is not necessary.

Key competencies: Careers in science policy are based on communication – a great deal of the job is reading, writing, and speaking with diverse constituencies.

On-campus student organizations: Penn Science Policy and Diplomacy Group

First steps: The almost universal recommendation is to get involved at the earliest point of interest. One recent visitor to Penn recommended reading The Hill, RollCall, Politico, and ScienceInsider, in short paying attention to the relevant news. Attending policy discussions at Penn, the greater Philadelphia area, and at national scientific meetings is useful. Many in the profession recommend writing editorials, blogs, letters to one’s congressman, state legislators, and city officials, and position papers. The Penn Science Policy and Diplomacy Group offers a useful conduit for some of these activities, and ASBMB offers an ‘advocacy’ toolkit that can quite helpful as well. The annual AAAS Policy Forum, held in spring, is open to anyone. ASBMB’s Student/Postdoc Hill Day, open through application, is widely held to be excellent. Contacting those already in the profession, of course, is important. As one writer put it, “Finding out what policy is and how it works from those who have been involved in it for years was the most important thing I did in my entire job search” (ASBMBToday May, 2014). Volunteering for university or professional society committees  can make sense as well, as these bodies work as deliberative teams. A larger commitment begins with fellowships in science policy. The most widely cited of these are the AAAS Science and Technology Policy Fellowship and the National Academies Christine Mirzayan Science and Technology Policy Graduate Fellowship.

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Description: ‘Public Health’ is defined by the CDC as the science of protecting and improving the health of families and communities through promotion of healthy lifestyles, research for disease and injury prevention, and detection and control of infectious diseases. Public health is a broad field that encompasses biostatistics and health informatics, community health, epidemiology, environmental health, global health, policy and health management, health communications and public relations, and the application of these fields to various subpopulations. Intersections of relevant disciplines create unique niches, for example disaster epidemiology and pharmacoeconomics. Settings for those working in public health are government (city, state, national, and international), nonprofits, and the private sector (health care institutions, consulting groups, pharmaceuticals, and insurance companies).

Advantage of an advanced degree: A PhD in biostatistics or epidemiology pays immediate dividends, as these disciplines are the engines of many public health enterprises. A PhD that utilizes computational skills in relation large-scale data has emerged as well to be highly valuable. But an MD or a PhD in most biomedical disciplines connotes a sophisticated understanding of mechanisms of disease, diagnostics, and therapeutics, which is a distinct advantage in virtually all public health careers. Training in biomedical research can be especially powerful if coupled with specialized training in public health, for example through certificate or masters programs. The acquisition of an MD or PhD is also a testament to a variety of non-bench skills and traits that are attractive in public health concerns. Government agencies in particular employ MDs and PhDs for basic, translational, and clinical research. 

Key competencies: Training in biostatistics, epidemiology, and computation, as noted above, is key to a variety of positions within public health. An understanding of disease mechanisms, diagnostics and therapeutics is important as well. Certain areas of public health require specialized forms of expertise that may or may not relate to training in the biomedical sciences, for example economics, engineering, environmental sciences, and sociology.

On-campus student organizations: Searching ‘health’ on Penn Clubs pulls up a number of organizations whose interests relate or center on public health. The Penn Science Diplomacy Group may be especially relevant.

First steps: The Public Health Certificate Program (PHCP) offers highly motivated, well-qualified doctoral candidates in Biomedical Graduate Studies an opportunity to experience the relationship between public health and biomedical research. Penn’s Center for Public Health (CPH) can provide a wealth of information (note also its seminar series). CPH sponsors both training and masters programs in public health. For those interested in public health in relation to the environment and/or toxicology, Penn’s Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology (CEET) is a good source of information. CEET provides a certificate program in environmental health sciences.

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Description: A career in publishing typically encompasses different forms editorial positions. A scientific editor works with an editorial board or within a small editorial group to manage, as his or her core task, the selection process for manuscripts. This task entails reading the initial submissions, managing peer review, and making decisions as to acceptability. Other responsibilities of a scientific editor can include commissioning new content, writing editorials, and contributing content to a website. Exposure to a broad number of topics and networking with the scientific community, for example at scientific meetings, is viewed to be critical. A news editor writes and commissions news pieces for a journal. He or she works closely with scientific writers, whose activities are discussed elsewhere in this website. A managing editor is commonly viewed as someone who helps bridge the acquisition of scientific content with the production process and other elements of a journal’s viability. An acquisition editor generally works for publishers in determining the need and marketability of new content relating to books, identifying authors that can meet that need, and shepherding manuscripts through the review and publication process.

Advantage of an advanced degree: A PhD is almost always required for entry and advancement in scientific publishing. Editors must understand scientific thought and process in detail, be able to keep up with rapid developments in diverse areas, and maintain a high level of credibility in all facets of communication.

Key competencies: The selection process for editors employed by one group of scientific journals (see Cho below in Additional Resources) provides the best insight into the skills required: a strong research background (PhD; postdoc experience helpful); breadth of scientific interests; manuscript test (relating presumably to layout, strength of evidence, and writing); interest in science communication; writing ability (desirable but not essential); and fit as a good ambassador for journal. One might also read into this facility with scientific networking.

On-campus student organizations: There are no specific BGS- or Penn-wide student organizations that tackle editorial activities per se, however there are many that can be used to sustain breadth in scientific interests. These include the Penn Science Policy and Diplomacy Group, and the Penn Graduate Women in Science and Engineering. Students within some graduate groups actively exchange manuscripts with the intent of editorial-like review prior to submission.

First steps: It makes sense to know that you like to read and review manuscripts. Offers to do something along these lines for those in your laboratory or fellow students as they relate to manuscripts or grant applications prior to submission would likely be welcomed. Helping to review manuscripts that your advisor receives from journals can be useful as well, subject of course to ethical considerations worked out in advance. A most practical step beyond evaluation of printed and web-based resources relating to scientific editing as a career is, as almost always, contacting alumni who work in the field. Many journals offer internships.

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Description: The purview of regulatory affairs is compliance. Professionals in regulatory affairs work in government or the private sector. The largest governmental agency employing scientists in the capacity of regulatory affairs is the Food and Drug Administration, for which the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research has the responsibility for evaluating new drugs before they can be sold, the Center for Devices and Radiological Health has the responsibility for regulating firms the manufacture medical devices, and the Office of Inspections and Investigations has the responsibility for oversight of medical products and inspections of facilities producing those products. Within the private sector, individuals in regulatory affairs advise on legal requirements (operational) and/or shape the regulatory environment (strategic), almost always in the capacity of interfacing optimally with governmental regulatory agencies. They can work with any number of different teams within a company, for example those dealing with clinical design, pre-market approvals, and adverse effect monitoring. Responsibilities include project delivery, dossier quality, and response to questions by regulatory agencies. The work is noted by all in the profession as quite detail-focused. It involves writing and reviewing documents that are not infrequently thousands of pages long. As one individual put it, “if you can’t manage tiny nuances of data in a multigigabyte document, you’re in trouble.” The job requires an understanding of basic and clinical science, and to some extent business, as well as government language and procedures.

Advantage of advanced degree: Formal training in science is essential for regulatory work. While scientists with BS, MS, PharmD, PhD, and MD degrees are all found in the profession, most agree that advanced degrees are essential for advancement to upper level positions. Advanced degrees can be essential, as well, in landing entry-level research positions within a company that in turn permit eventual transition to regulatory affairs, as many companies prefer to recruit from ‘within’. Advanced degrees are also noted to help with the technical aspects of the science and to provide greater degree of credibility in interactions with scientific colleagues and government agencies.

Key competencies: The most widely cited competency is attention to detail, but this presupposes a knowledge of the information that requires the detail. This is generally related to basic and clinical science, hence all areas of scientific pursuit are essential. The information required of the private sector also relates to government requirements, but the focus of scientific training on detail is conceded to benefit this as well. Highly cited, as well, are competencies relating to excellence in written and verbal communication and to teamwork.

On-campus student organizations: None.

First steps: The most practical step beyond evaluation of printed and web-based resources is, as almost always, contacting alumni who work in the field. There are no on-campus student organizations devoted regulatory affairs, however Penn’s Institute for Translational Medicine and Therapeutics (ITMAT) sponsors a Masters program in Regulatory Affairs and can therefore be a good source of information. Indeed, the growth of such programs has provided an increasingly important source of viable candidates for companies. Many recommend RAPS (Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society) as a source of information and of online courses and certificate programs.

Additional resources:

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Description: Academic research is a central feature of almost every college and university. It is distinguished from other forms of research primarily, although not solely, by the degree to which it is integrated with education. In a small college setting, research is largely carried out as a component of undergraduate training. Advances in scientific knowledge are certainly made, but the focus centers more on the undergraduate experience. In a university setting, research represents a far larger enterprise, and one whose goals through funding and publication are pursued aggressively. Yet, the involvement of undergraduate, now predoctoral students and postdoctoral researchers in an addition to undergraduates, remains an essential element. Those with PhDs in the biomedical sciences who wish to pursue academic research, having completed a postdoc (see below), will undoubtedly seek faculty positions. The tenure track affords a modicum of stability once tenure is achieved. Promotion within the tenure track is based on contributions to research, education, and service, with the relative weights accorded each dependent on the institution. Some institutions will have something akin to a research track, which does not provide the stability of tenure but allows an almost sole focus on research, sometimes of an independent nature and sometimes as part of a team. There do exist staff positions, as opposed to faculty positions, in which research is actively pursued. Such positions almost always exist within the laboratory of someone else. They often involve lab management, and usually evolve from when a postdoctoral appointment in the laboratory has run its course.

The joy of fundamental discovery exerts a considerable pull for many in academic research. The relative autonomy in choosing directions is attractive as well. Many investigators cite intellectual challenge and the growth afforded by continual reinvention as deeply important to them. Indeed, while writing grant applications can be a consuming process, it is cited by many as a time of intense intellectual growth. The rewards of teaching and training are of paramount importance, of course, and for many these have been the inducement for entering academic research. The relatively flexible schedule, the camaraderie of the laboratory, and travel are benefits as well.

The negatives of academic research, especially in a university setting, to some extent relate to the perception of long hours and job insecurity. The long hours are in fact probably no greater than that of most professional careers but, like them, vary according to need. Achieving tenure is a tough and sometimes anxiety-prone process. If the process of tenure follows the ‘up or out’ dictum, moreover, career stability is not achieved until one’s mid- to late thirties, assuming the normal lengths of pre- and postdoctoral training. Counterbalancing the risks inherent to pursuing a tenured position, most colleges and university now recognize the value of intense mentoring throughout the early stages of one’s career. If one is not on tenure track, stability is tethered to consistent success in funding, or in small colleges competence in teaching or administrative functions. Particularly in a university setting, the ability to conduct research and in general thrive is tied to success in obtaining individual and shared research grants, which can be a volatile process. Research grants are important in small college settings, too, but often assume forms that fund multi-investigator programs.

Advantages of an advanced degree: An advanced degree (PhD or MD) is essential for any realistic pursuit of academic research at a level beyond that of providing rote technical support. Pursuit in almost all settings requires postdoctoral experience as well.

Key competencies: Please see those listed as ‘Competencies Intrinsic to Scientific Endeavor’. Competencies relating to critical thinking, mathematical and computational facility, and experimental design are essential, of course, but one cannot undervalue those of management and communication.

On-campus student organizations: None, excepting BGS (but not a bad idea!).

First steps: Predoctoral students are immersed in academic research, so the idea of testing the waters is less an issue than for other career paths. Obtaining a faculty position, particularly within the tenure track, can be highly competitive. In this regard, it’s hard to understate the value of publications as a testament to one’s experience and productivity. The exertions of one’s pre- and postdoctoral mentors, through networks and recommendations, are intensely important as well.

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Description: ‘Industry’ comprises a spectrum of enterprises ranging from start-ups and contract research organizations to established biotechs, large pharmaceuticals, and manufacturers of scientific equipment and medical devices. The working culture differs significantly among all these venues, but all research programs in private sectors supports various stages of discovery and development. Industry is a business, therefore most of what is pursued is viewed through the lens of potential for profit. But this does not diminish in any sense the devotion of those within industry to the thrill of discovery and the outcomes that represent substantive advances in therapy and diagnostics. Many who enter research in industry do so with the intent of making a tangible contribution to people’s lives. The therapeutic/product-driven mission means that researchers in industry, by and large, have less autonomy than those in academia; research programs within a company are chosen primarily by senior management and are guided by the overall goal of the company. Yet, initiative and innovation at all levels are prized. The laboratory setting is very much like that in academia, absent graduate students and to some extent postdocs, with more emphasis often placed on highly skilled technical support. The reporting structure is more vertical in the sense that no laboratory is works independently. Especially in large enterprises, facilities are rarely limiting. Researchers are not beholden to writing grant proposals, which is a considerable distinction from academia, but depending on one’s level within a laboratory or superimposed hierarchy a justification of resources, particularly manpower, may be required on a more or less regular basis. Industry places a considerable emphasis on collaboration among investigators, much more so than in academia at this point in time. Research in industry can represent a useful platform for pursuit of other kinds of careers that are aligned with product development, for example regulatory affairs, medical writing, and medical liaison activities. There is no such thing as tenure in industry, of course. One’s stability is that inherent to any kind of business concern, i.e. subject to changes in relation to financial and strategic imperatives.

Advantages of an advanced degree: A PhD, MD, or MD/PhD is almost always required for any kind of position that lends itself to advancement in the scientific arena of industry. Reports on the requirement for postdoctoral experience are varied at this point in time. The situation the advantage of a postdoc is made more complicated by the growth of ‘industry’ postdocs and the hiring by at least some companies of recently graduated PhDs first into temporary positions. A ‘cost/benefit’ analysis of pursuing a postdoc is worthwhile: the benefits are 1) many other applicants will have had postdoc experience, therefore those without are at a disadvantage, 2) there is a maturity that comes with having to adapt to a new area of research in a short period of time, and 3) companies often consider research experience in determining position and salary; the costs are time and a generally lower salary.

Key competencies: Please see ‘Competencies Intrinsic to Scientific Endeavor’ elsewhere in this website. Competencies relating to critical thinking, mathematical and computational facility, and experimental design are essential, of course, but one cannot undervalue the ability to work effectively in a team, communicate clearly, and to learn new technologies quickly. Research in industry also places an emphasis on goal-orientation, teamwork, and ability to adapt to changes on short notice. Advancement requires all this plus the ability to lead.

On-campus student organizations: The Penn Biotech Group and Penn Graduate Consulting Group can provide useful perspectives.

First steps: Networking is perhaps the single most important key first step in i) understanding what any particular company or set of companies in a certain industry setting can offer, and ii) getting one’s foot in the door. Attending job fairs on campus or otherwise making connections with panelists who present at Penn can be useful. As mentioned above, postdoc positions in industry exist. These can represent a quite useful means of being recognized by a company, but be sure to compare carefully the advantages/disadvantages of the particular postdoc with those of academic postdocs, as considerable differences can exist.

Additional resources:

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Description: The US government employs biomedical scientists in a number of centers, institutes, and agencies, including those represented by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). The NIH, for example, employs in a highly esteemed Intramural Research Program that comprises approximately 1200 principal investigators (and 4,000 postdocs) aligned with most of its 27 Institutes and Centers. The principal investigators run ‘Sections’ or ‘Units’ devoted to independent research aims, much as scientists in academia operate. They receive support from their Institute or Center and are reviewed every four years by an external Board of Scientific Counselors for the quality and value of the research being performed. A tenure process exists within NIH, again much like that in academia. The CDC similarly employs a large number of scientists, albeit to conduct research that is much more directed. The focus of the CDC is primarily infectious diseases. What distinguishes research programs in the CDC, whether basic or applied, is that they must yield to practical issues and disease problems relevant to outbreaks that can emerge quite quickly. The focus of research in the FDA is epidemiology, microbiology, pharmacology, and toxicology. Tenure is not provided in either of the latter two organizations.

Advantages of an advanced degree: An advanced degree (PhD or MD) is essential for any realistic pursuit of research in government settings at a level beyond that of providing rote technical support. Postdoctoral experience, in the sense broadening technical expertise and independence, can be advantageous.

Key competencies: Please see ‘Competencies Intrinsic to Scientific Endeavor’ elsewhere in this website. Competencies relating to critical thinking, mathematical and computational facility, and experimental design are essential, of course, but one cannot undervalue those of management and communication especially in environments provided by the CDC and FDA in which activities among many different investigators and teams can be tightly integrated.

First steps: The most practical step beyond evaluation of printed and web-based resources is, as almost always, contacting alumni who work in the field. NIH sponsors several training programs available to graduate students, including a Summer Internship Program (SIP) and Graduate Partnerships Program (GPP), and a quite large postdoctoral training program. Information regarding these and other features of intramural training can be found through Office of Intramural Training & Education at the link below. The CDC and FDA, too, have a variety of internship and postdoctoral programs found through the links below.

Additional resources:
NIH Office of Intramural Training & Education
CDC Fellowships, Internships, and Learning Opportunities
FDA Student, Fellowship, and Senior Scientist Programs

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Description: Science writing is a specialized form of journalism whose primary intent is to communicate to the public in general, or sometimes to professional audiences in particular, advances in science and medicine. The markets are newsprint, broadcasting, periodical and specialist magazines, and trade press. The Council for the Advancement of Science Writing (CASW) makes a distinction between ‘science journalists’ and ‘science public information officers’. The latter are employed by universities, private research foundations, corporations, etc. Many science writers work as freelancers. They submit to editors ideas for articles, referred to as queries, and if a good working relationship has been established with editors they can be tapped on a more or less regular basis for assignments as needs arise. Some science writers work, of course, within the context of a traditional employment, especially within the trade press. There is wide consensus that science writing is a highly competitive field, especially at a time when the media is restructuring to accommodate internet models of journalism.

Advantage of advanced degree: While highly successful science writers come from a variety of backgrounds, there are advantages to having an advanced degree in science. As argued by Jim Austin, former editor of Science Careers, there is “a trend especially at high-end journals aimed at scientists toward hiring advanced-degreed scientists who happen to be very good writers.” Scientific training can also help one to become a better journalist in the sense of not just covering a story but having the capacity to get to the bottom of it.

Key competencies: The most important qualities of science writer, as succinctly summarized by CASW, is a fascination with science and a talent for communicating clearly, i.e. communicating accurately and with an interesting flair. Beyond a talent for good writing – which is a sine quo non for success in this field – Austin cites a good nose for news, strong research skills, and hard, careful work as important. These traits have clear parallels with those underlying success in scientific research. The ability to network is another trait widely regarded as key to success. Andrew Fazekas, writing as a correspondent from Next Wave, argues the need to gather a regular roster of clients and developing relationships with editors as a key to long-term survival. CASW argues that science writers must become facile with all forms of media, especially as many writers become less defined by the media outlet they work for.

On-campus student organizations: None specifically, but Penn’s student Science Policy and Diplomacy Group is very closely allied.

First steps: The most practical step beyond evaluation of printed and web-based resources is, as almost always, contacting alumni who work in the field. The advice from virtually all science writers is to take every opportunity to publish writing. This can take the form of queries within the above-mentioned markets or blogs. There are no on-campus student organizations devoted specifically to journalism in a scientific context, but Penn’s Science Policy Group may be used quite effectively as an outlet for reporting.  Several news groups exist on campus, for example The Daily Pennsylvanian student newspaper and the Department of Communications at Penn Med. Quite a few journalism courses are offered at Penn, for example in the English department and the Annenberg School for Communication, and these are worth exploring. Several universities offer formal training in science writing, however most concede that it’s possible to succeed without formal training. Membership in the National Association of Science Writers can offer many benefits. Indeed, this association’s Field Guide for Science Writers is quoted elsewhere as being the best resource for aspiring science writers. Getting started in science writing, according to CASW, means reading “omnivorously” about science in all the myriad formats, for example local and national newspapers, Scientific American, Wired, Science, Nature, and EurekAlert!.

Additional resources:

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Description: Community colleges serve an increasingly important role in society. According to Eduardo Porter (The Promise and Failure of Community Colleges, New York Times, 2016), “community colleges could be the nation’s most powerful tools to improve the opportunities of less privileged Americans, giving them a shot at harnessing a fast-changing job market and building a more equitable, inclusive society for all of us.” Porter continues to say “community colleges are pretty much the only shot at a higher education for those who don’t have the cash or the high school record to go to a four-year university. And that’s a lot of people: 45 percent of the undergraduate students in the country.” The decision to teach in a community college can be based on any of several reasons, of course, but the obligations couldn’t be made more clear.

Community colleges generally offer two-year associate’s degrees, introductory-level courses that are recognized by larger universities, and technical and special-needs courses. Full-time faculty are usually expected to spend at least 20 hours a week with students in classes, labs, and in the office. This equates to 5 courses a semester, 10 for the year. The challenge is not only the grading load, but working with  classroom of students with diverse backgrounds, strengths, and weaknesses. “Teaching at a community college is not lecturing; it’s more hands-on” (AAAS ‘Community College Faculty: Must Love to Teach’). Some colleges have a tenure system that mirrors that of 4-year colleges and universities, but many hire faculty on extended contracts. Obtaining a full-time position can be difficult, since a large number of classes can be taught by part-time faculty. Community college resources and facilities are almost fully dedicated to classroom-based teaching and laboratory courses. Funding opportunities limited kinds of independent research, however, do exist, with funding for example from the NSF, Department of Education, and companies. Such projects almost always emphasize student training.

Advantages of an advanced degree: Science departments at community colleges typically prefer candidates with a PhD. This is virtually essential in an urban setting, where a sufficient base of expertise exists and positions are consequently highly competitive.

Key competencies: The ability to effectively teach a diverse group of individuals is of paramount importance. This goes well beyond what one might accomplish as a tutor or a TA, although these positions can be sufficient to identify one’s disposition and talents. Being able to address knowledgeably what’s involved in teaching online is also considered a plus, as are outcomes assessment and ‘universal design for learning’ (Reed, 2015). Additional competencies are important – critical thinking, of course, and to varying degrees mathematical/computational fluency and areas of critical design that relate to framing scientific hypotheses and interpretation of data in a didactic context.

On-campus organizations: Penn’s Center for Excellence in Teaching, Learning and Innovation

First steps: Teaching experience is a sine quo non for employment within a community college. There are nevertheless steps that can be taken absent that experience to learn more and to better position you for entry into that setting. The first is to “establish a presence” (Zackal) by scheduling a meeting with a department chair, asking to observe a class, and talking with some of the professors. It’s probably important in doing this to emphasize that you’re not lobbying for a job, rather just learning about community colleges (Zimbleman). The second is offering to participate in a community college course as a guest lecturer for one or two lectures, or to establish in some other way a collaboration with the college. In this regard, you might offer to tutor or to help with student activities. As you make a commitment to wanting to teach in a community college as a career, gaining experience as a teacher is essential. Teaching as an adjunct is one route. Teaching within a primarily undergraduate institution or university setting is another. One source states an expectation of two or three years teaching for consideration for appointment to a fulltime faculty position (Jenkins, 2013). Matt Reed provides some interesting stuff.

Additional resources:
Jenkins, R. (2013). How the Job Search Differs at Community Colleges.
Reed, M. (2015). Tips for Faculty Job Seekers at Community Colleges.
Zackal, J. (2014). Becoming a Community College Professor.
Zimbleman, D.M. (2002). The Community College Job Search.

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Description: Kindergarten through senior in high school (K-12) teaching opportunities can be found in both public and private schools. Graduates with advanced degrees in science are likely to find opportunities in teaching science classes at a high school or a middle school rather than in a primary school. The choice between teaching at a public or a private school is a personal one, as there are advantages and disadvantages to either setting. To be qualified to teach at public K-12 schools, one needs to have a teaching degree or a post-Bachelor teaching certificate. Certificates are designed for individuals, who have a bachelor’s degree in fields other than teaching, and wish to earn a formal teaching credential. However, teaching certification is not required for teaching at a private school. A great K-12 teacher is someone who loves teaching and enjoys being around young students on a daily basis. Teachers often have additional extracurricular responsibilities (i.e. coaching, community services, advising, etc) in addition to teaching in the classroom. However, this is more common in private schools.

Advantages of an advanced degree: While an advanced degree (PhD) in biomedical science can help you obtain a position in teaching advanced science classes at a high school, it is not a requirement.

Key competencies: Key competencies in K-12 teaching are an ability to design a curriculum (only applicable in private school setting), organize and prepare lesson plans, and ability to present clearly to students at beginning to intermediate levels.  Importantly, K-12 teachers also need to be able to relate to young students.

First steps: Anyone who is interested in pursuing teaching in K-12 schools should communicate with his or her thesis advisor and to seek out some teaching opportunities during graduate school. At the very least, one should serve as a teacher’s assistant (TA) in classes offered to graduate students. In addition, one should reach out to someone in the BGS office who can provide them with more guidance in obtaining teaching opportunities.

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Description: A variety of teaching positions exist in primarily undergraduate institutions (PUIs), for example liberal arts colleges and universities with relatively small graduate programs. These positions can be roughly divided into those that are tenure-track, those that are full-time as well but subject to a reappointment process that does not involve tenure, and those that are part-time, e.g. temporary or contingent on immediate needs. The primary responsibility in all instances is that of teaching, however the specific responsibilities can range from teaching courses, directing student laboratories, developing curriculum, advising students, and establishing community outreach programs. Tenure-track positions almost always involve some level of research, usually that intended to involve undergraduate students in research-based experiences. Sometimes the research is of a purely pedagogical nature. The quality of teaching is, of course, vitally important in the reappointment process. Research and service to the institution are relevant as well.

Advantages of an advanced degree: The majority of faculty in tenure-track and full-time positions in public and private nonprofit higher education institutions such as PUIs in the US hold a doctorate. It is difficult to parse the data for science-related fields, but an even higher percentage of faculty with doctorates can be assumed. Nearly all tenure-track faculty in the sciences have postdoctoral experience. The reasons, outlined by Campbell et al below in resources, are 1) many applicants have postdoc experience, therefore those without are at a disadvantage, 2) the broadened experience allows one to teach additional courses, 3) the exposure to writing grants and publishing papers puts one in a better position to attain extramural funding, and 4) there is a maturity that comes with having to adapt to a new area of research in a short period of time.

Key competencies: The competencies acquired in PhD training in the biomedical sciences are almost synonymous with those required for effective teaching in scientific disciplines, particularly those disciplines in which research is required. Alumni report that skills relating to communication and management are especially important.

First steps: The distinction in the job search between those who have been tried and tested as teachers and the others is immense. It goes without saying, then, that individuals who are considering pursuit of teaching as a profession should strive for substantive experience beforehand. In graduate school, a student might consider serving as a teaching assistant, offering to give a guest lecture in a course or two, or organizing a workshop that capitalizes on his or her expertise in an educational sense. Penn’s Center for Excellence in Teaching, Learning and Innovation offers a teaching certificate that involves pedagogical discussion and training, teaching experience, observation and review, and teaching philosophies. Some students choose to teach for a period of time between graduate and postdoctoral training. At some institutions, programs exist for postdocs to gain significant exposure to teaching. Penn-PORT is one such program. Sometimes a postdoc adviser is amenable to providing time for teaching. Many who elect to pursue teaching after a typical postdoc begin with a year or two of temporary positions.

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